Bitcoin essentials ebook 2016 worldcatorg
Transfer Payment — investopedia. What is a transfer payment — Answers. News, data and summary — MSN Money https: What is the stock market and what does the stock market … http: Financial Markets Authority https: Financial Markets Authority — Home Facebook https: Ontario Securities Commission — Official Site https: Charlesbank middle-market private equity leaders https: Funding Societies Crunchbase https: Capital budgeting eBook, [WorldCat.
Reverse Auction E-Procurement … https: How to Compete in a Reverse Auction Inc. Accounting Scandals in Corporate … https: LandOpt Financial Planner — Dashboard https: Interest Rate — Investopedia http: Personal Loans — iLoan — Unsecured Loan https: Unsecured Loan — Investopedia http: Government budget balance The Currency Newshound https: Government budget balance TheHill http: Spot Market — Investopedia https: Dairy Trading Spot Market — Dairy.
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation https: Definition of Abstract of Title in Real Estate https: Title s — best way to hold real estate http: Real Estate Information — revenue. Securities Act Of — Investopedia https: Futures Contract — Sharper Insight.
Futures Contract — Investopedia — Sharper Insight. Energies Futures Contract Specifications — Barchart. Financial Statement North Shore Bank https: Consumer Debt Counselors — Official Site https: Leveraged buyout financial definition of Leveraged buyout https: Investment consultants criticise Financial Conduct Authority https: Financial Conduct Authority … https: What does a financial intermediary do — Answers.
Financial Intermediary Services — Personal Banking https: The Economist Events https: The Economist — Official Site https: Executive Education Directory The Economist https: Find out what the related areas are that Design computing connects with, associates with, correlates with or affects, and which require thought, deliberation, analysis, review and discussion.
This unique checklist stands out in a sense that it is not per-se designed to give answers, but to engage the reader and lay out a Design computing thinking-frame. Below you will find a quick checklist designed to help you think about which Design computing related domains to cover and 47 essential critical questions to check off in that domain.
Dissect Artificial Architecture leadership and correct Artificial Architecture management by competencies. Look at Artificial Intelligence governance and figure out ways to motivate other Artificial Intelligence users. Give examples of Computational creativity issues and define Computational creativity competency-based leadership. Incorporate Computational thinking tasks and forecast involvement of future Computational thinking projects in development.
Participate in Computer-Aided Design decisions and raise human resource and employment practices for Computer-Aided Design.
Investigate Digital morphogenesis outcomes and oversee Digital morphogenesis management by competencies. Huddle over Massachusetts Institute of Technology risks and maintain Massachusetts Institute of Technology for success. Learn more about how to achieve comprehensive insights with the Design computing Self Assessment:. MS Arch in Design Computing http: Artificial architecture — Home Facebook https: Logojoy Artificial Intelligence Logo Design https: Computational Creativity Theory http: Computational Creativity BrainTalks https: Integrating Computational Creativity Exercises into Classes http: Computational Thinking for Educators — Course https: Computational Thinking Starts … http: Computer-aided design is the use of computer systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design.
CAD software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve communications through documentation, and to create a database for manufacturing. Digital morphogenesis via Schelling segregation http: Soundscapes of Digital Morphogenesis in Architecture … https: Massachusetts Institute of Technology https: Massachusetts Institute of Technology — Niche https: Massachusetts Institute of Technology: Skip to content What is involved in Greentree Business Software Find out what the related areas are that Greentree Business Software connects with, associates with, correlates with or affects, and which require thought, deliberation, analysis, review and discussion.
How far is your company on its Greentree Business Software journey? Start the Checklist Below you will find a quick checklist designed to help you think about which Greentree Business Software related domains to cover and 46 essential critical questions to check off in that domain.
The following domains are covered: Greentree Business Software Critical Criteria: Business software Critical Criteria: Cloud computing Critical Criteria: Enterprise resource planning Critical Criteria: Refer to Enterprise resource planning tasks and secure Enterprise resource planning creativity.
New Zealand Critical Criteria: Think about New Zealand planning and pioneer acquisition of New Zealand systems. Windows 95 Critical Criteria: Add value to Windows 95 strategies and drive action. Learn more about how to achieve comprehensive insights with the Greentree Business Software Self Assessment: To address the criteria in this checklist, these selected resources are provided for sources of further research and information: Greentree Business Software External links: Windows 95 in your browser https: What is involved in statement of work Find out what the related areas are that statement of work connects with, associates with, correlates with or affects, and which require thought, deliberation, analysis, review and discussion.
How far is your company on its statement of work journey? Start the Checklist Below you will find a quick checklist designed to help you think about which statement of work related domains to cover and 64 essential critical questions to check off in that domain.
Acceptance testing Critical Criteria: Devise Acceptance testing risks and ask what if. Data Item Descriptions Critical Criteria: Reconstruct Deliverable goals and report on developing an effective Deliverable strategy.
Master service agreement Critical Criteria: Judge Master service agreement adoptions and do something to it. Performance work statement Critical Criteria: Project management Critical Criteria: Co-operate on Project management results and pay attention to the small things.
Request for Proposal Critical Criteria: Statement of objectives Critical Criteria: Work Breakdown Structure Critical Criteria: Learn more about how to achieve comprehensive insights with the statement of work Self Assessment: What is involved in Critical infrastructure Find out what the related areas are that Critical infrastructure connects with, associates with, correlates with or affects, and which require thought, deliberation, analysis, review and discussion.
How far is your company on its Critical infrastructure protection journey? Start the Checklist Below you will find a quick checklist designed to help you think about which Critical infrastructure related domains to cover and essential critical questions to check off in that domain.
Critical infrastructure Critical Criteria: Examine Critical infrastructure goals and question. Interstate Highway System Critical Criteria: Government debt Critical Criteria: Examine Government debt failures and know what your objective is.
Fixed cost Critical Criteria: Explore Fixed cost adoptions and oversee Fixed cost requirements. Military—industrial complex Critical Criteria: Public policy Critical Criteria: Reorganize Public policy planning and sort Public policy activities. Grand Coulee Dam Critical Criteria: Public sector Critical Criteria: Start Public sector goals and mentor Public sector customer orientation. Coastal management Critical Criteria: Scrutinze Coastal management risks and find out what it really means. Wind power in Denmark Critical Criteria: Federal Ministry of the Interior Critical Criteria: Irrigation scheme Critical Criteria: Weigh in on Irrigation scheme visions and explore and align the progress in Irrigation scheme.
Brooklyn Bridge Critical Criteria: Look at Brooklyn Bridge quality and adjust implementation of Brooklyn Bridge. Smart grid Critical Criteria: Deduce Smart grid goals and probe the present value of growth of Smart grid. Electrical engineering Critical Criteria: Chat re Electrical engineering failures and find out what it really means. Public transport Critical Criteria: Reliance Petroleum Critical Criteria: Debate over Reliance Petroleum management and probe Reliance Petroleum strategic alliances.
Public health Critical Criteria: Chat re Public health quality and cater for concise Public health education. High-speed rail in China Critical Criteria: Illustrate High-speed rail in China quality and look for lots of ideas. Urban planning Critical Criteria: Think about Urban planning planning and look in other fields.
Security agency Critical Criteria: Communicate about Security agency failures and stake your claim. Air traffic control Critical Criteria: Chat re Air traffic control governance and ask questions.
Electric power transmission Critical Criteria: Spillover effect Critical Criteria: Scrutinze Spillover effect issues and pay attention to the small things. Department of Homeland Security Critical Criteria: Water supply network Critical Criteria: Talk about Water supply network engagements and use obstacles to break out of ruts. Rail transport Critical Criteria: Troubleshoot Rail transport planning and find answers. Civil engineering Critical Criteria: Public finance Critical Criteria: Scan Public finance visions and figure out ways to motivate other Public finance users.
Financial services Critical Criteria: Systematize Financial services quality and oversee implementation of Financial services. Public capital Critical Criteria: Mine Public capital visions and pay attention to the small things. Homeland Security Affairs Critical Criteria: National Diet Library Critical Criteria: Land-use planning Critical Criteria: Scrutinze Land-use planning strategies and find answers.
Fuel oil Critical Criteria: Track Fuel oil quality and find out what it really means. Natural gas Critical Criteria: Troubleshoot Natural gas decisions and define what our big hairy audacious Natural gas goal is. District heating Critical Criteria: Categorize District heating leadership and probe District heating strategic alliances. Urban sprawl Critical Criteria: Reconstruct Urban sprawl tasks and pioneer acquisition of Urban sprawl systems.
Port of Shanghai Critical Criteria: Bootstrap Port of Shanghai quality and innovate what needs to be done with Port of Shanghai. Critical infrastructure protection Critical Criteria: Energy policy of Brazil Critical Criteria: Smart growth Critical Criteria: Check Smart growth tasks and remodel and develop an effective Smart growth strategy. Patriot Act Critical Criteria: Accelerate Patriot Act outcomes and define what do we need to start doing with Patriot Act.
Learn more about how to achieve comprehensive insights with the Critical infrastructure protection Self Assessment: Critical infrastructure External links: Urban planning External links: What is involved in ISO 86 Find out what the related areas are that ISO 86 connects with, associates with, correlates with or affects, and which require thought, deliberation, analysis, review and discussion.
How far is your company on its ISO 86 journey? Start the Checklist Below you will find a quick checklist designed to help you think about which ISO 86 related domains to cover and essential critical questions to check off in that domain. ISO 86 Critical Criteria: ISO Critical Criteria: Carbon 14 Critical Criteria: Consolidate Carbon 14 issues and ask what if.
Data Matrix Critical Criteria: Familiarize yourself with ISO governance and find out what it really means. Freight container Critical Criteria: Coated abrasives Critical Criteria: Accelerate Coated abrasives decisions and get the big picture. Distinguish ISO outcomes and find answers. Distinguished Encoding Rules Critical Criteria: Equal-loudness-level contour Critical Criteria: Hash function Critical Criteria: Austrian Standards Institute Critical Criteria: Dublin Core Critical Criteria: Study Dublin Core failures and intervene in Dublin Core processes and leadership.
Incorporate ISO adoptions and test out new things. Direct part marking Critical Criteria: Analyze Direct part marking quality and shift your focus. Nurse ISO tasks and find out what it really means. Discourse ISO strategies and find out. Extensible Metadata Platform Critical Criteria: Business Identifier Code Critical Criteria: Differential scanning calorimetry Critical Criteria: Computer Graphics Metafile Critical Criteria: ISO 86 External links: Computer Graphics Metafile External links: What is involved in Personal software process Find out what the related areas are that Personal software process connects with, associates with, correlates with or affects, and which require thought, deliberation, analysis, review and discussion.
How far is your company on its Personal software process journey? Start the Checklist Below you will find a quick checklist designed to help you think about which Personal software process related domains to cover and essential critical questions to check off in that domain. Personal software process Critical Criteria: Acceptance test—driven development Critical Criteria: Adaptive software development Critical Criteria: Track Adaptive software development decisions and slay a dragon.
Agile software development Critical Criteria: Application release automation Critical Criteria: Behavior-driven development Critical Criteria: Build automation Critical Criteria: Capability Maturity Model Critical Criteria: Carnegie Mellon Critical Criteria: Infer Carnegie Mellon tasks and look at the big picture.
Cleanroom software engineering Critical Criteria: Continuous Delivery Critical Criteria: Continuous Integration Critical Criteria: Domain-driven design Critical Criteria: Dynamic systems development method Critical Criteria: Model after Dynamic systems development method risks and learn.
Earned value Critical Criteria: Extreme programming Critical Criteria: Substantiate Extreme programming goals and acquire concise Extreme programming education. Extreme programming practices Critical Criteria: Feature-driven development Critical Criteria: Graphical user interface builder Critical Criteria: Incremental build model Critical Criteria: Infrastructure as Code Critical Criteria: Integrated development environment Critical Criteria: Iterative and incremental development Critical Criteria: Microsoft Solutions Framework Critical Criteria: Model-driven development Critical Criteria: Sort Model-driven development quality and find out what it really means.
Pair Programming Critical Criteria: Programming tool Critical Criteria: Analyze Programming tool tasks and define what our big hairy audacious Programming tool goal is.
Proxy-based estimating Critical Criteria: Rapid application development Critical Criteria: Requirements analysis Critical Criteria: Canvass Requirements analysis results and proactively manage Requirements analysis risks. Scaled Agile Framework Critical Criteria: Have a meeting on Scaled Agile Framework goals and find out what it really means.
Service mark Critical Criteria: Software Engineering Institute Critical Criteria: Software configuration management Critical Criteria: Software construction Critical Criteria: Investigate Software construction planning and learn.
Software deployment Critical Criteria: Guard Software deployment strategies and pioneer acquisition of Software deployment systems. Software design Critical Criteria: Derive from Software design visions and correct better engagement with Software design results. Software development Critical Criteria: Accommodate Software development tactics and plan concise Software development education.
Software development methodology Critical Criteria: Map Software development methodology projects and test out new things. Software development process Critical Criteria: Software documentation Critical Criteria: Software engineer Critical Criteria: Prioritize Software engineer planning and ask what if.
Software engineering Critical Criteria: Differentiate Software engineering issues and test out new things. Software maintenance Critical Criteria: Shape Software maintenance failures and stake your claim.
Software project management Critical Criteria: Software prototyping Critical Criteria: Distinguish Software prototyping visions and look for lots of ideas. Software quality assurance Critical Criteria: Software testing Critical Criteria: Spiral model Critical Criteria: Deliberate over Spiral model adoptions and figure out ways to motivate other Spiral model users.
Stand-up meeting Critical Criteria: Accommodate Stand-up meeting quality and be persistent. Team software process Critical Criteria: Align Team software process governance and be persistent.
Test-driven development Critical Criteria: UML tools Critical Criteria: Unified Process Critical Criteria: User experience Critical Criteria: Scrutinze User experience planning and question. With or Without a Usability Expert in the Team? Waterfall model Critical Criteria: See the value of Waterfall model decisions and change contexts. Watts Humphrey Critical Criteria: Learn more about how to achieve comprehensive insights with the Personal software process Self Assessment: Personal software process External links: Watts Humphrey External links: What is involved in Microtechnology Find out what the related areas are that Microtechnology connects with, associates with, correlates with or affects, and which require thought, deliberation, analysis, review and discussion.
How far is your company on its Microtechnology journey? Start the Checklist Below you will find a quick checklist designed to help you think about which Microtechnology related domains to cover and essential critical questions to check off in that domain.
Space habitat Critical Criteria: Shallow trench isolation Critical Criteria: Consolidate Shallow trench isolation strategies and pay attention to the small things.
Pushing Ice Critical Criteria: Hafnium bomb Critical Criteria: Check Hafnium bomb projects and create a map for yourself. Red Sea dam Critical Criteria: Be clear about Red Sea dam projects and adjust implementation of Red Sea dam. Synthetic element Critical Criteria: Electric motor Critical Criteria: Devise Electric motor decisions and ask questions.
Suez Canal Critical Criteria: Refer to Suez Canal goals and devote time assessing Suez Canal and its risk. Information Revolution Critical Criteria: Silicon on insulator Critical Criteria: Interdigital transducer Critical Criteria: Trace Interdigital transducer tasks and get going. Particle accelerator Critical Criteria: Bulk micromachining Critical Criteria: Own Bulk micromachining results and track iterative Bulk micromachining results.
Electrochemical fabrication Critical Criteria: Space elevator Critical Criteria: Microelectromechanical systems Critical Criteria: Orders of magnitude Critical Criteria: Prioritize Orders of magnitude goals and test out new things. Blood pressure Critical Criteria: Shape Blood pressure governance and acquire concise Blood pressure education.
Exotic atom Critical Criteria: Deliberate over Exotic atom failures and plan concise Exotic atom education.
Bering Strait bridge Critical Criteria: Pay attention to Bering Strait bridge engagements and adopt an insight outlook. Integrated circuit Critical Criteria: Probe Integrated circuit visions and improve Integrated circuit service perception. Nuclear isomer Critical Criteria: Wearable generator Critical Criteria: Regulation of nanotechnology Critical Criteria: DNA nanotechnology Critical Criteria: Implications of nanotechnology Critical Criteria: Start Implications of nanotechnology management and use obstacles to break out of ruts.
Great Wall of China Critical Criteria: Climate engineering Critical Criteria: Planetary engineering Critical Criteria: Gauge Planetary engineering issues and devise Planetary engineering key steps. Scratch drive actuator Critical Criteria: Wire bonding Critical Criteria: Deduce Wire bonding leadership and test out new things.
Optical switch Critical Criteria: Have a round table over Optical switch projects and use obstacles to break out of ruts. Molecular nanotechnology Critical Criteria: Drive Molecular nanotechnology visions and mentor Molecular nanotechnology customer orientation. Digital micromirror device Critical Criteria: Focus on Microtechnology tactics and explore and align the progress in Microtechnology.
Limits of computation Critical Criteria: Thermionic valve Critical Criteria: Comb drive Critical Criteria: Boost Comb drive results and improve Comb drive service perception. Learn more about how to achieve comprehensive insights with the Microtechnology Self Assessment: What is involved in Order Management Find out what the related areas are that Order Management connects with, associates with, correlates with or affects, and which require thought, deliberation, analysis, review and discussion.
How far is your company on its Order Management journey? Start the Checklist Below you will find a quick checklist designed to help you think about which Order Management related domains to cover and 69 essential critical questions to check off in that domain.
Order Management Critical Criteria: Order management system Critical Criteria: Algorithmic trading Critical Criteria: Deliberate over Algorithmic trading management and observe effective Algorithmic trading. Asset allocation Critical Criteria: Air ideas re Bloomberg L. Broadcast network Critical Criteria: Co-operate on Broadcast network goals and slay a dragon.
Buy side Critical Criteria: Cash and cash equivalents Critical Criteria: Have a session on Cash and cash equivalents adoptions and get out your magnifying glass. Computer software Critical Criteria: Demonstrate Computer software adoptions and proactively manage Computer software risks.
Direct market access Critical Criteria: Coach on Direct market access tasks and summarize a clear Direct market access focus. Execution management system Critical Criteria: FIX protocol Critical Criteria: Financial regulation Critical Criteria: Fishbowl Inventory Critical Criteria: Infer Fishbowl Inventory engagements and get out your magnifying glass.
Front running Critical Criteria: Graph Front running risks and acquire concise Front running education. Index fund Critical Criteria: Discuss Index fund leadership and diversify by understanding risks and leveraging Index fund. Investment management Critical Criteria: Investment policy statement Critical Criteria: Investment strategy Critical Criteria: Order fulfillment Critical Criteria: Dissect Order fulfillment outcomes and oversee Order fulfillment management by competencies.
Program trading Critical Criteria: Purchase order Critical Criteria: Trace Purchase order leadership and get out your magnifying glass. Sales order Critical Criteria: Sell side Critical Criteria: Start Sell side strategies and handle a jump-start course to Sell side.
Separately managed account Critical Criteria: Consult on Separately managed account engagements and test out new things. Tactical asset allocation Critical Criteria: Deliberate Tactical asset allocation strategies and look at it backwards. Learn more about how to achieve comprehensive insights with the Order Management Self Assessment: Order Management External links: What is involved in Transportation Spend Management Find out what the related areas are that Transportation Spend Management connects with, associates with, correlates with or affects, and which require thought, deliberation, analysis, review and discussion.
How far is your company on its Transportation Spend Management journey? Start the Checklist Below you will find a quick checklist designed to help you think about which Transportation Spend Management related domains to cover and 52 essential critical questions to check off in that domain.
Transportation Spend Management Critical Criteria: Look at Transportation Spend Management decisions and use obstacles to break out of ruts. Refer to Advanced Traffic Management System results and get the big picture. Active traffic management Critical Criteria: Test Active traffic management decisions and use obstacles to break out of ruts.
California Department of Transportation Critical Criteria: Dynamic message sign Critical Criteria: Highway advisory radio Critical Criteria: Canvass Highway advisory radio risks and use obstacles to break out of ruts. Intelligent Transportation System Critical Criteria: Boost Intelligent Transportation System goals and use obstacles to break out of ruts.
Ramp meter Critical Criteria: Read up on Ramp meter goals and change contexts. Speed limit Critical Criteria: Confer re Speed limit risks and get going. Traffic camera Critical Criteria: Adapt Traffic camera projects and secure Traffic camera creativity. Traffic optimization Critical Criteria: Experiment with Traffic optimization goals and plan concise Traffic optimization education. Transportation Management Center Critical Criteria: Variable-message sign Critical Criteria: Vehicle Detector Station Critical Criteria: Learn more about how to achieve comprehensive insights with the Transportation Spend Management Self Assessment: Transportation Spend Management External links: Traffic camera External links: What is involved in Peer-to-Peer Insurance Business Models Find out what the related areas are that Peer-to-Peer Insurance Business Models connects with, associates with, correlates with or affects, and which require thought, deliberation, analysis, review and discussion.
Start the Checklist Below you will find a quick checklist designed to help you think about which Peer-to-Peer Insurance Business Models related domains to cover and essential critical questions to check off in that domain. Time Magazine Critical Criteria: Financial Supervisory Authority Critical Criteria: Basel Accords Critical Criteria: Redistribution of income and wealth Critical Criteria: Transfer payment Critical Criteria: Stock market Critical Criteria: Prioritize Stock market visions and stake your claim.
Financial Markets Authority Critical Criteria: Demonstrate Financial Markets Authority goals and be persistent.
Ontario Securities Commission Critical Criteria: Warrant of payment Critical Criteria: Sequoia Capital Critical Criteria: Examine Sequoia Capital tasks and track iterative Sequoia Capital results.
Tech Crunch Critical Criteria: Open access helps researchers as readers by opening up access to articles that their libraries do not subscribe to. One of the great beneficiaries of open access may be users in developing countries , where currently some universities find it difficult to pay for subscriptions required to access the most recent journals.
Open access extends the reach of research beyond its immediate academic circle. An open access article can be read by anyone — a professional in the field, a researcher in another field, a journalist , a politician or civil servant , or an interested layperson.
Indeed, a study revealed that mental health professionals are roughly twice as likely to read a relevant article if it is freely available. The main reason authors make their articles openly accessible is to maximize their research impact. The more the article is used, cited, applied and built upon, the better for research as well as for the researcher's career. Some professional organizations have encouraged use of open access: Research funding agencies and universities want to ensure that the research they fund and support in various ways has the greatest possible research impact.
In , the NIH Public Access Policy , an open access mandate was put into law, and required that research papers describing research funded by the National Institutes of Health must be available to the public free through PubMed Central within 12 months of publication. A growing number of universities are providing institutional repositories in which their researchers can deposit their published articles.
Some open access advocates believe that institutional repositories will play a very important role in responding to open access mandates from funders. In May , 16 major Dutch universities cooperatively launched DAREnet , the Digital Academic Repositories, making over 47, research papers available to anyone with internet access. These institutions' administrators, faculty and librarians, and staff support the international work of the Coalition's awareness-raising and advocacy for open access.
In , the Harvard Open Access Project released its guide to good practices for university open-access policies, [43] focusing on rights-retention policies that allow universities to distribute faculty research without seeking permission from publishers. The awareness raising activities of the AOASG include presentations, workshops, blogs, and a webinar series on open access issues. As information professionals, librarians are vocal and active advocates of open access. These librarians believe that open access promises to remove both the price barriers and the permission barriers that undermine library efforts to provide access to the scholarly record, [47] as well as helping to address the serials crisis.
Many library associations have either signed major open access declarations, or created their own. Librarians also lead education and outreach initiatives to faculty, administrators, and others about the benefits of open access. At most universities, the library manages the institutional repository, which provides free access to scholarly work by the university's faculty. The Canadian Association of Research Libraries has a program [52] to develop institutional repositories at all Canadian university libraries.
An increasing number of libraries provide hosting services for open access journals. In , open access activist Aaron Swartz was posthumously awarded the American Library Association's James Madison Award for being an "outspoken advocate for public participation in government and unrestricted access to peer-reviewed scholarly articles".
Open access to scholarly research is argued to be important to the public for a number of reasons. One of the arguments for public access to the scholarly literature is that most of the research is paid for by taxpayers through government grants , who therefore have a right to access the results of what they have funded.
This is one of the primary reasons for the creation of advocacy groups such as The Alliance for Taxpayer Access in the US. Additionally, professionals in many fields may be interested in continuing education in the research literature of their field, and many businesses and academic institutions cannot afford to purchase articles from or subscriptions to much of the research literature that is published under a toll access model.
Even those who do not read scholarly articles benefit indirectly from open access. As argued by open access advocates, open access speeds research progress, productivity, and knowledge translation. Faster discoveries benefit everyone. High school and junior college students can gain the information literacy skills critical for the knowledge age.
Critics of the various open access initiatives claim that there is little evidence that a significant amount of scientific literature is currently unavailable to those who would benefit from it. Open access online, by contrast is faster, often immediate, making it more suitable than interlibrary loan for fast-paced research.
In developing nations, open access archiving and publishing acquires a unique importance. Scientists, health care professionals, and institutions in developing nations often do not have the capital necessary to access scholarly literature, although schemes exist to give them access for little or no cost.
For example, individual researchers may not register as users unless their institution has access, [68] and several countries that one might expect to have access do not have access at all not even "low-cost" access e. Many open access projects involve international collaboration. Bioline International , a non-profit organization dedicated to helping publishers in developing countries is a collaboration of people in the UK, Canada, and Brazil; the Bioline International Software is used around the world.
Research Papers in Economics RePEc , is a collaborative effort of over volunteers in 45 countries. The Public Knowledge Project in Canada developed the open source publishing software Open Journal Systems OJS , which is now in use around the world, for example by the African Journals Online group, and one of the most active development groups is Portuguese. This international perspective has resulted in advocacy for the development of open-source appropriate technology and the necessary open access to relevant information for sustainable development.
There are various ways in which open access can be provided, with the two most common methods usually categorised as either gold or green open access. One option for authors who wish to make their work openly accessible is to publish in an open access journal "gold open access".
There are many business models for open access journals. An open access journal may or may not charge a publishing fee ; open access publishing does not necessarily mean that the author has to pay.
Traditionally, many academic journals levied page charges, long before open access became a possibility. When open access journals do charge processing fees, it is the author's employer or research funder who typically pays the fee, not the individual author, and many journals will waive the fee in cases of financial hardship, or for authors in less-developed countries.
Some no-fee journals have institutional subsidies. There currently is a growing global debate regarding open access's ideology and ethics and its related Article Processing Charge fees APC as they are being created and managed by academic journal and monograph publisher conglomerates together with some national and international academic institutions and government bodies.
Self-archiving, also known as green open access, refers to the practice of depositing articles in an open access repository , this can be an institutional or a disciplinary repository such as arXiv. Green open access journal publishers [79] endorse immediate open access self-archiving by their authors. Open access self-archiving was first formally proposed in [80] [81] by Stevan Harnad in his " Subversive Proposal ". However, self-archiving was already being done by computer scientists in their local FTP archives in the s, [82] later harvested into CiteSeer.
What is deposited can be either a preprint , or the peer-reviewed postprint — either the author's refereed, revised final draft or the publisher's version of record.
Extensive details and links can also be found in the Open Access Archivangelism blog [85] and the Eprints Open Access site. Like the self-archived green open access articles, most gold open access journal articles are distributed via the World Wide Web , [1] due to low distribution costs, increasing reach, speed, and increasing importance for scholarly communication.
Open source software is sometimes used for open access repositories , [87] open access journal websites , [88] and other aspects of open access provision and open access publishing. Access to online content requires Internet access, and this distributional consideration presents physical and sometimes financial barriers to access. Proponents of open access argue that Internet access barriers are relatively low in many circumstances, that efforts should be made to subsidize universal Internet access, whereas pay-for-access presents a relatively high additional barrier over and above Internet access itself.
The Directory of Open Access Journals lists a number of peer-reviewed open access journals for browsing and searching. Open access articles can also often be found with a web search , using any general search engine or those specialized for the scholarly and scientific literature, such as OAIster and Google Scholar.
Many universities, research institutions and research funders have adopted mandates requiring their researchers to provide open access to their peer-reviewed research articles by self-archiving them in an open access repository. The idea of mandating self-archiving was mooted at least as early as As of December , mandates have been registered by over universities including Harvard, MIT, Stanford, University College London, and University of Edinburgh and over research funders worldwide.
The " article processing charges " which are often used for open access journals shift the burden of payment from readers to authors or their funders , which creates a new set of concerns.
This could be remedied, however, by charging for the peer-review rather than acceptance. It has been argued that this may reduce the ability to publish research results due to lack of sufficient funds, leading to some research not becoming a part of the public record. Unless discounts are available to authors from countries with low incomes or external funding is provided to cover the cost, article processing charges could exclude authors from developing countries or less well-funded research fields from publishing in open access journals.
However, under the traditional model, the prohibitive costs of some non-open access journal subscriptions already place a heavy burden on the research community; and if green open access self-archiving eventually makes subscriptions unsustainable, the cancelled subscription savings can pay the gold open access publishing costs without the need to divert extra money from research.
Self-archiving of non-open access publications provides a low cost alternative model. Another concern is the redirection of money by major funding agencies such as the National Institutes of Health and the Wellcome Trust from the direct support of research to the support of open access publication. Research institutions could cover the cost of open access by converting to an open access journal cost-recovery model, with the institutions' annual tool access subscription savings being available to cover annual open access publication costs.
It is argued that this money comes predominantly from publicly funded scientific libraries as they purchase subscriptions or licenses in order to provide access to scientific journals for their members. The study was presented by the Max Planck Digital Library and found that subscription budgets would be sufficient to fund the open access publication charges. Even before the advent of the Internet various models were proposed to increase access to academic research.
To help stem the flood of low-quality publications, he jokingly suggested in the s that at the beginning of his career each scientist should be issued with vouchers to pay for his papers. Closer to the present, but still ahead of its time, was Common Knowledge. This was an attempt to share information for the good of all, the brainchild of Brower Murphy , formerly of The Library Corporation.
The book was translated into English the next year, with a copyright legend that read "No Rights Reserved". The modern open access movement as a social movement traces its history at least back to the s, with the Letterist International LI placing anything in their journal Potlatch in the public domain. As the LI merged to form the Situationist International , Guy Debord wrote to Patrick Straram "All the material published by the Situationist International is, in principle, usable by everyone, even without acknowledgement, without the preoccupations of literary property.
With the spread of the Internet and the ability to copy and distribute electronic data at no cost, the arguments for open access gained new importance.
The fixed cost of producing the article is separable from the minimal marginal cost of the online distribution. Probably the earliest book publisher to provide open access was the National Academies Press , publisher for the National Academy of Sciences , Institute of Medicine , and other arms of the National Academies.
They have provided free online full-text editions of their books alongside priced, printed editions since , and assert that the online editions promote sales of the print editions. As of June they had more than 3, books up online for browsing, searching, and reading.
While Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Clinical Investigation , Ajit Varki made it the first major biomedical journal to be freely available on the web in The nonprofit nature of the JCI allows consideration of a truly novel solution — not to charge anyone at all!
An explosion of interest and activity in open access journals has occurred since the s, largely due to the widespread availability of Internet access. It is now possible to publish a scholarly article and also make it instantly accessible anywhere in the world where there are computers and Internet connections.
These new possibilities emerged at a time when the traditional, print-based scholarly journals system was in a crisis.
The number of journals and articles produced had been increasing at a steady rate; however the average cost per journal had been rising at a rate far above inflation for decades, and budgets at academic libraries have remained fairly static. Libraries and librarians have played an important part in the open access movement, initially by alerting faculty and administrators to the serials crisis.
The Association of Research Libraries developed the Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition SPARC , in , an alliance of academic and research libraries and other organizations, to address the crisis and develop and promote alternatives, such as open access. The first online-only, free-access journals eventually to be called "open access journals" began appearing in the late s and early s.
These journals typically used pre-existing infrastructure such as e-mail or newsgroups and volunteer labor and were developed without any intent to generate profit. The first free scientific online archive was arXiv. The prior existence of a "preprint culture" in high-energy physics is one major reason why arXiv has been successful.
However, computer scientists mostly self-archive on their own websites and have been doing so for even longer than physicists.
Computer scientists had been self-archiving on their own FTP sites and then their websites since even earlier than the physicists, as was revealed when Citeseer began harvesting their papers in the late s.
Citeseer is a computer science archive that harvests, Google -style, from distributed computer science websites and institutional repositories , and contains almost twice as many papers as arXiv.
In , the U. National Library of Medicine NLM made Medline , the most comprehensive index to medical literature on the planet, freely available in the form of PubMed. Usage of this database increased a tenfold when it became free, strongly suggesting that prior limits on usage were impacted by lack of access. While indexes are not the main focus of the open access movement, Medline is important in that it opened up a whole new form of use of scientific literature — by the public, not just professionals.
One of the first humanities journals published in open access is CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture [] founded at the University of Alberta in with its first issue published in March and since published by Purdue University Press.
In , Harold Varmus of the NIH proposed a journal called E-biomed, intended as an open access electronic publishing platform combining a preprint server with peer-reviewed articles.
In , 34, [] scholars around the world signed "An Open Letter to Scientific Publishers", calling for "the establishment of an online public library that would provide the full contents of the published record of research and scholarly discourse in medicine and the life sciences in a freely accessible, fully searchable, interlinked form". This led to the establishment of the Public Library of Science , an advocacy organization.
However, most scientists continued to publish and review for non-open access journals. PLoS decided to become an open access publisher aiming to compete at the high quality end of the scientific spectrum with commercial publishers and other open access journals, which were beginning to flourish. The first major international statement on open access was the Budapest Open Access Initiative in February , launched by the Open Society Institute.
The year recorded some backlash from non-OA publishers. Edition of the Essentials of Glycobiology. Perhaps the first dedicated publisher of open access monographs in the humanities was re.
Two years later in Open Humanities Press , another publisher of humanities monographs, was launched. Most recently, the Open Library of Humanities launched in September In , USENIX , the advanced computing systems association, implemented an open access policy for their conference proceedings.
In they added audio and video recordings of paper presentations to the material to which they provide open access. In , the UK Higher Education Funding Council for England HEFCE proposed adopting a mandate that in order to be eligible for submission to the UK Research Excellence Framework REF all peer-reviewed journal articles submitted after must be deposited in the author's institutional repository immediately upon acceptance for publication , regardless of whether the article is published in a subscription journal or in an open access journal.
HEFCE expresses no journal preference, places no restriction on authors' choice and requires the deposit itself to be immediate, irrespective of whether the publisher imposes an embargo for an allowable embargo period that remains to be decided on the date at which access to the deposit can be made open. HEFCE also provided grants to universities in England [] wishing to participate in the Pilot Collection of Knowledge Unlatched , a not-for-profit organisation enabling humanities and social sciences monographs to become open access.
The Pilot Collection ran from October to February and libraries and institutions worldwide participated in 'unlatching' the collection of 28 titles.
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research had adopted an Open Access policy [] for its publications on 13 September [] and announced that each ICAR institute would set-up an open access institutional repository.
One such repository is eprints cmfri , an open access institutional repository of the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute which was set-up on 25 February well before the policy was adopted. In , the Department of Biotechnology and Department of Science and Technology , under Ministry of Science and Technology , Government of India jointly announced their open access policy. In May the European Union announced that "all scientific articles in Europe must be freely accessible as of " [] and that the Commission will "develop and encourage measures for optimal compliance with the provisions for open access to scientific publications under Horizon ".
For an additional In medicine, biochemistry and chemistry gold publishing in open access journals was more common than author self-archiving. In all other fields self-archiving was more common. A study on the development of publishing of open access journals from to [] published in suggests that, measured both by the number of journals as well as by the increases in total article output, direct gold open access journal publishing has seen rapid growth particularly between the years and It was estimated that there were around 19, articles published open access in , while the number has grown to , articles in The journal count for the year is estimated to have been , and for ; numbers which show considerable growth, albeit at a more moderate pace than the article-level growth.
These findings support the notion that open access journals have increased both in numbers and in average annual output over time. The development of the number of active open access journals and the number of research articles published in them during the period — is shown in the figure above. If these gold open access growth curves are extrapolated to the next two decades, the Laakso et al.
There are various open access aggregators that index open access journals or articles. The OALibrary provides open and free access to a large database of scientific research papers, covering all topics [].