Unexpected end of file from server
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The Internet of Things IoT is increasingly a reality today. Nevertheless, some key challenges still need to be given particular attention so that IoT solutions further support the growing demand for connected devices and the services offered. Due to the potential relevance and sensitivity of services, IoT solutions should address the security and privacy concerns surrounding these devices and the data they collect, generate, and process.
Recently, the Blockchain technology has gained much attention in IoT solutions. Its primary usage scenarios are in the financial domain, where Blockchain creates a promising applications world and can be leveraged to solve security and privacy issues.
However, this emerging technology has a great potential in the most diverse technological areas and can significantly help achieve the Internet of Things view in different aspects, increasing the capacity of decentralization, facilitating interactions, enabling new transaction models, and allowing autonomous coordination of the devices. The paper goal is to provide the concepts about the structure and operation of Blockchain and, mainly, analyze how the use of this technology can be used to provide security and privacy in IoT.
Finally, we present the stalker, which is a selfish miner variant that has the objective of preventing a node to publish its blocks on the main chain. Internet of Things IoT and Blockchain are considered emerging concepts and technologies. At the same time they transform concepts unexpected end of file from server blockchain stock create new possibilities, each in their respective scenarios, and there is an opportunity to create applications that can share the intrinsic characteristics of both, exploring how the IoT can benefit from the decentralized nature of the Blockchain.
The IoT is a comprehensive term referring to ongoing efforts to connect a wide variety of physical things to communication networks. Currently, the Internet has not only conventional computers connected but also a significant heterogeneity of equipment such as TVs, laptops, fridges, stoves, electrical appliances, cars, and smartphones.
In this new scenario, projections indicate that the Internet will have over 50 billion devices connected until [ 1 ]. Within the IoT domain, there are several types of applications, such as smart cities, smart healthcare, and smart home. At the same time that the IoT can provide us with valuable benefits, it also increases the risk of exposure to various security and privacy threats; some of these threats are new.
Before the advent of the IoT, information leakage and denial of service were the most security threats reported. With the IoT, security threats go far beyond the theft of information or denial of service. These threats can now be potentially related to the real lives, including physical security.
Other concerns are related to privacy. IoT brought with it an increase in the amount of personal information delivered and shared between connected devices. Although it is not a new demand or unique in this new scenario, privacy is an important element. Security solutions and privacy should be implemented according to characteristics of heterogeneous IoT devices.
There is a demand for security solutions that are capable of providing equivalent levels of security for various types of devices and demands mechanisms capable of audit and access control in these environments. In this context that Blockchain also falls, because this technology can be used to authenticate, authorize, and audit data generated by devices. Also, because of its decentralized nature, it eliminates the need to trust in the third party and does not have a single point of failure. It works as a public, shared, and universal ledger.
It creates consensus and confidence in direct communication between two parties, without any third party. We also can use Blockchain in supply chain, smart contracts, and digital identity management and in some other applications [ 3 ]. This paper aims to familiarize newly interested, as well as updating the readers who have some prior knowledge of Blockchain, and this includes the recent applications in security and privacy, and how their use can leverage the Unexpected end of file from server blockchain stock.
The approach offered will be a survey of the state-of-the-art articles in which the Blockchain is used to provide some level of privacy and security to IoT and will present a unexpected end of file from server blockchain stock of a selfish mining attack [ 4 ], which we call stalker. The stalker is a malicious mining that aims to block a specific miner to publish its blocks. We structured this paper into five sections. Section 2 will present the theoretical foundations for the understanding of the proposed solution.
Section 3 shall submit all the working mechanisms of Blockchain. Section 4 describes some cases of use for Blockchain to provide security and unexpected end of file from server blockchain stock at IoT. Section 5 presents the stalker. Finally, Section 6 presents the final considerations and open questions. This section presents an IoT overview, approaching the classifications and taxonomies proposed for your infrastructure and unexpected end of file from server blockchain stock followed by some common definitions in the security and privacy area and the main concepts needed to understand Blockchain vision.
The IoT covers the processing of data and the communication between devices of different platforms and capacities of autonomic, without human intervention. In recent decades, this term emerged as an evolution of the Internet and presented itself as a new technological and social paradigm. The IoT is considered an extension of the current Internet, and it provides computing and communication to connect objects to the Internet. The connection to the worldwide unexpected end of file from server blockchain stock network will enable the remote control of objects and allow the objects to be accessed as services providers, making them smart objects.
Ten years later, Ashton published an article where he introduced himself as the creator of the term [ 5 ]. Fromthe discussion on the IoT became widespread, began to gain the attention of governments, and appear related to privacy and data security issues. In this year, the IoT became the agenda of the International Telecommunication Union ITUthe United Nations agency for information and communication technologies, which publishes an annual report on emerging technologies. The term IoT gained popularity quickly, between the years of anddue to maturity of Wireless Sensor Networks WSN [ 6 ] and advances in home and industrial automation.
In this period, techniques to explore the various limitations of the devices emerged such as memory, power, scalability, and robustness of the network. This book is one of the major theoretical references about the IoT [ 7 ]. InGartner Inc. Currently, there is not a single definition of IoT. However, several authors and institutions have contributed to the construction of his vision. These devices interact with each other cooperating with its neighbors to achieving common goals.
The author divides this visions into Internet-oriented middlewareobject-oriented sensors and actuatorsand semantics-oriented the representation and information storage. Device features include the ability of devices to interact directly with the communication network; they are able to collect and send information directly, without using gateway capabilities, for network communication. Gateway features include support for multiple interfaces, allowing communication of IoT devices, even though different types of wired or wireless technologies, such as ZigBee, Bluetooth, or Wi-Fi.
This model includes management features and security features associated with the four layers. They are also categorized into generic and specific capabilities. Generic management features in IoT include device management, such as remote device activation and deactivation, diagnostics, firmware or software upgrades, device status management, network topology management, and traffic and congestion management. Generic security features include authorization, authentication, confidentiality, and application data integrity protection and signage and privacy protection.
There are numerous and diverse applications for IoT. The prevention of health problems becomes more effective with a real-time collection of information from our body and diagnoses become more accurate, with a patient profile that has long-term records.
Security and privacy are fundamental principles of any information system. We refer to safety as the combination of integrity, availability, and confidentiality. Typically it is possible to obtain security using a combination of authentication, authorization, and identification. These concepts are defined below [ 13 ]: In the Blockchain context, integrity provides the guarantee that transactions are immutable. Commonly, cryptographic mechanisms are used to check integrity.
In other words, the service is always active when requested by a legitimate user, and this requires the communication infrastructure and the database. The Blockchain achieves this objective by allowing users to establish connections with multiple users and to maintain the blocks in a decentralized way with various chain copies on the network.
That is, only those with the rights and privileges will be able to access the information, whether it is in processing or transit. To ensure this principle, the Blockchain uses mechanism for pseudo-anonymization, like the use of hash functions to blind users identities.
The structure of the Blockchain ensures these three functions, since only users who have the private keys can perform transactions, and all transactions are public and auditable. The nonrepudiation provides evidence that a user performed unexpected end of file from server blockchain stock specific action such as transferring money, authorizing a purchase, or sending a message.
As all transactions are signed, a user cannot deny that he has done it. The privacy can be defined as the right that an individual has to share their information.
Users of Blockchain use a pseudonym address to perform their transactions. Usually, each user has unexpected end of file from server blockchain stock of unexpected end of file from server blockchain stock. A transaction can be seen as a chain of signatures that prove the possession and transfer of values, so auditable way. One of the main concerns is that these transactions may disclose information from a user, such as buying habits and frequented locations or data usage.
The concept of privacy in Blockchain consists in keeping the anonymity and the untying of transactions. The anonymity of transactions requires that it is not possible to link a particular transaction to a user; for this reason, the user uses a different address for each new transaction. Untying assumes that both Blockchain addresses and transactions are not bound to the actual identities of the users; once the data of these transactions are routed to a random set of points in the network.
All the possession of resources and transactions on the network is made using the concept of keys and digital signatures. The keys used are generated by applying the concept of public key cryptography. A pair of keys is generated: The entire transaction requires a signature to be considered valid and to prove the ownership of the resources expended.
Hash functions are mathematical functions that generate a summary, a data fingerprint. When applied to a given dataset, it generates an output, which is unique there may be two data sets with the same hash, but the likelihood of occurrence is extremely low. One of the most frequent uses for unexpected end of file from server blockchain stock hash is verifying data integrity. The hash output size depends on the algorithm used, but what is important is that it is always the same size, regardless of input size.
The hash algorithms must have specific characteristics: Encryption is the set of techniques that transform intelligible information into something that an outside agent is unable to understand. Encryption systems work as follows: It uses key pairs, one public and one private. The first to encrypt and the second to de-encrypt and vice versa; this is possible due to the use of some mathematical functions that have the property of being irreversible.
The efficiency of an encryption scheme can be measured by considering the following:
