Conflicts over land and the fur trade caused by synonym
In economicsland comprises all naturally occurring resources as well as geographic land. Examples include particular geographical locations conflicts over land and the fur trade caused by synonym, mineral depositsforests, fish stocks, atmospheric quality, geostationary orbitsand portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Supply of these resources is fixed. Natural resources are fundamental to the production of all goodsincluding capital goods.
Location values are not be confused with values imparted by fixed capital improvements. In classical economicsland is considered one of the three factors of production also sometimes called the three producer goods along with capitaland labor.
Land is sometimes merged with capital to simplify micro-economics. However, a common mistake is combining land and capital in macro-analysis. Land was sometimes defined in classical and neoclassical economics as the "original and indestructible powers of the soil. Income derived from ownership or control of natural resources is referred to as rent. Georgists hold that this implies a perfectly inelastic supply curve i. This view is supported by evidence that although land can come on and off the market, market inventories of land show if anything an conflicts over land and the fur trade caused by synonym relationship to price i.
As a tangible asset land is represented in accounting as a fixed asset or a capital asset. Some United Kingdom and common wealth universities offer a courses in land economywhere economics is studied conflicts over land and the fur trade caused by synonym law, business regulation, surveying and the built and natural environments.
The sustainable use of land is the focus of some economic theories. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This article is about Land economics. For the journal, see Land Economics. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. January Learn how and when to remove this template message.
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Land grabbing is the contentious issue of large-scale land acquisitions: While used broadly throughout history, land grabbing as used in the 21st century primarily refers to large-scale land acquisitions following the world food price crisis. Although hailed by investors, economists and some developing countries as a new pathway towards agricultural development, investment in land in the 21st century has been criticized by some non-governmental organizations and commentators as having a negative impact on local communities.
International law is implicated when attempting to regulate these transactions. The term "land grabbing" is defined as very large-scale land acquisitions, either buying or leasing. InBorras, Hall and others wrote that "the phrase 'global land grab' has become a catch-all to describe and analyze the current trend towards large scale trans national commercial land transactions. In Portuguese, Land Grabbing is translated as "grilagem": The Overseas Development Institute reported in Januarythat with limited data available in general and existing data associated with NGOs interested in generating media attention in particular, the scale of global land trade may have been exaggerated.
They found the figures below provide a variety of estimates, all in the tens of millions of hectares. Most seem to arrive at a ballpark of million hectares. However, in practice, land acquired may not have previously been used as farmland, it may be covered by forests, which also equate to about 4 billion hectares worldwide, so transnational land acquisitions may have a significant role in ongoing deforestation. The researchers thought that a sizeable number of deals remain questionable in terms of size and whether they have been finalised and implemented.
The land database often relies on one or two media sources and may not track whether the investments take place, or whether the full quantity reported takes place.
The researchers claim these are only those that have been checked, and already amount to nearly 10 per cent of the GRAIN database transnational land acquisitions. Deals are reported that use the estimate of the full extent of land that the firm expects to use.
The researchers found that in terms of value of transnational land acquisitions, it is even harder to come across figures. Media reports usually just conflicts over land and the fur trade caused by synonym information on the area and not on the value of the land transaction.
They found a number of reports in land databases are not acquisitions, but are long-term leases, where a fee is paid or a certain proportion of the produce goes to domestic markets. Researchers discovered global investment funds are reported to have sizeable conflicts over land and the fur trade caused by synonym available for transnational land investments. There is significant uncertainty around the value of transnational land acquisitions, particularly given leasing arrangements.
Given the quantity of land and the size of investment funds operating in the area, it is likely that the value will be in the tens of billions of dollars. India contributes a further 10 per cent of conflicts over land and the fur trade caused by synonym deals. The majority of investment is in the production of palm oil and other biofuels.
They determined that the Land Portal also reports investments made by investors within their home country and after stripping these out found only 26 million hectares of transnational land acquisitions which strips out a lot of the Asian investments. The largest destination countries include. They found the reason seems to be biofuels expansion with exceptions in Sudan and Ethiopiawhich sees a trend towards growth of food from Middle Eastern and Indian investors. Represented in the media as the norm they seem to be more the exception.
The researchers found a mixed picture in terms of the origins of investors. This is agribusiness firms, as well as investment funds, investing mostly in sugar canejatropha or palm oil. This trend has clearly been driven by the biofuels targets in the EU and US, and greater vertical integration in agribusiness in general. The smaller trend is the picture of Middle Eastern investors or State-backed Chinese investments. While the UAE has done some significant deals by size, some driven by food deals, with Saudi Arabia a smaller number, this is not the dominant trend.
While this aspect of land trade has gathered lots of media attention, it is not by any means a comprehensive story. The most recent estimate of the scale, based on conflicts over land and the fur trade caused by synonym presented in April at an international conference convened by the Land Deal Politics Initiative, estimated the area of land deals at over 80 million ha.
Of these deals, the median size is 40, hectares 99, acreswith one-quarter overha and one-quarter under 10, ha. Investment in land often takes the form of long-term leasesas opposed to outright purchases, of land.
These leases often range between conflicts over land and the fur trade caused by synonym and 99 years. The methods surrounding the negotiation, approval, and follow-up of contracts between investors and governments have attracted significant criticism conflicts over land and the fur trade caused by synonym their opacity and complexity.
The negotiation and approval processes have been closed in most cases, with little public disclosure both during and after the finalization of a deal.
The approval process, in particular, can be cumbersome: It varies from approval by a simple district-level office to approval by multiple national-level government offices and is very subjective and discretionary. Afterwards, the government will undertake a project feasibility study and capital verification process, and finally a lease agreement will be signed and land will be transferred to the investor.
One common thread among governments has been the theme of development: Target governments tout the benefits of agricultural development, job creationcash crop production, and infrastructure provision as drivers towards economic development and eventually modernization. Many companies have promised to build irrigationroads, and in some cases hospitals and schools to carry out their investment projects.
The issue of agricultural development is a significant driving factor, within the larger umbrella of development, in target governments' agreement to investment by outsiders.
The Ethiopian government's acceptance of cash crop-based land acquisitions reflects its belief that switching to cash crop production would be even more beneficial for food security than having local farmers produce crops by themselves. On a smaller scale, some deals can be traced to a personal stake in the project or possibly due to corruption or rent-seeking.
Given the ad hoc, decentralized, and unorganized approval processes across countries for such transactions, the potential for lapses in governance and openings for corruption are extremely high. In many countries, the World Bank has noted that investors are often better off learning how to navigate the bureaucracies and potentially conflicts over land and the fur trade caused by synonym off corrupt officers of governments rather than developing viable, sustainable business plans.
Since Brazil enforces in a stricter way a long-existing law that limits the size of farmland properties foreigners may purchase, having halted a large part of projected foreign land purchases. In Argentinaas of Septembera projected law is discussed in parliament that would restrict the size of land foreign entities can acquire to hectare.
Investors can be generally broken down into three types: Governments and companies in Gulf States have been very prominent along with East Asian companies.
Many European- and American-owned investment vehicles and agricultural producers have initiated investments as well. These actors have been motivated by a number of factors, including cheap land, potential for improving agricultural production, and rising food and biofuel prices.
Building on these motivations, investments can be broken down into conflicts over land and the fur trade caused by synonym main categories: Forestry also contributes to a significant amount of large-scale land acquisition, as do several other processes: Zoomers [25] mentions drivers such as the creation of protected areas and nature reserves, residential migration, large-scale tourist complexes and the creation of Special Economic Zonesparticularly in Asian countries.
Agricultural sector companies most often view investment in land as an opportunity to leverage their significant monetary resources and market access to take advantage of underused land, diversify their holdings, and vertically integrate their production systems.
The World Bank identifies three areas in which multinational companies can leverage economies of scale: This has incentivized agribusinesses to vertically integrate to reduce supplier risk that has been heightened by the ongoing food price volatility.
While some concentrate on food exports, others focus on domestic markets first. While company-originated investments have originated from a wide range of countries, government-backed investments have originated primarily from the food-insecure Gulf States. The use and popularity of biofuels has grown over the past decade, corresponding with rising oil prices and increased environmental awareness. The total area under biofuel crops more than doubled between andexpanding to 36 million ha by The effect of the rise in popularity in biofuels was two-fold: One researcher from the IFPRI estimated that biofuels had accounted for 30 percent of the increase in weighted average grain prices.
Large-scale investments in land since have been scrutinized by civil society organizations, researchers, and other organizations because of issues such as land insecuritylocal consultation and compensation for land, displacement of local peoples, employment of local people, the process of negotiations between investors and governments, and the environmental consequences of large-scale agriculture.
These issues have contributed to critics' characterization of much large-scale investment since as "land grabbing," irrespective of differences in the types of investments and the ultimate impact that investments have on local populations. One of the major issues conflicts over land and the fur trade caused by synonym land tenure: In a study, the World Bank estimated that only between 2 and 10 percent of total land in Africa is formally tenured.
While commonly required by law in many host countries, the consultation process between investors and local populations have been criticized for not adequately informing communities of their rights, negotiating powers, and entitlements within land transactions. Consultations have been found extremely problematic due to the fact that they often reach just village chiefs but neglect common villagers and disenfranchised groups.
There is a knowledge gap between investors and local populations regarding the land acquisition process, the legal enforceability of promises made by investors, and other issues. When consultations do occur with communities, some take place in spans of only two to three months, casting doubt on whether such short time frames can be considered as adequate consultation for such large, wide-reaching, and impactful events.
An additional concern with consultations is that women and underrepresented populations are often left outside during the process. Large-scale projects in Mozambique rarely included women in consultations and never presented official reports conflicts over land and the fur trade caused by synonym documents for authorization by women.
This oversight in consultations further disenfranchises previously overlooked communities and worsens power inequities in local villages. Another criticism of investment in land is the potential for large-scale displacement of local peoples without adequate compensationin either land or money. These displacements often result in resettlement in marginal lands, loss of livelihoods especially in the case of pastoralistsgender-specific erosion of social networks.
One study by the IIED concluded that guidelines for compensation given to displaced villagers in Ethiopia and Ghana was insufficient to restore livelihoods lost through dislocation. There are a number of issues with the process of relocating locals to other areas where land is less fertile.
In the process of relocation, often changed or lost are historical methods of farming, existing social tiessources of income, and livelihoods. This holds drastic impacts especially in the case of women, who rely greatly upon such informal relationships.
When not displaced, the conversion of local farmers into laborers holds numerous negative consequences for local populations. Most deals are based on the eventual formation of plantation-style farming, whereupon the investing company will own the land and employ locals as laborers in large-scale agricultural plots. The number of jobs created varies greatly dependent on commodity type and style of farming planned.
This fact, combined with the intrinsic incentives towards mechanization in plantation -style production, can lead to much lower employment than originally planned for. When employed, locals are often paid little: In addition to the lack of coordination between ministries, there is a wide knowledge gap between government-level offices and investors, leading to a rushed and superficial investment review. Many government agencies initially overwhelmed by the deluge of investment proposals failed to properly screen out non-viable proposals.
One addition to many contracts between governments and investors is a Stabilisation Clause, which insulates investors from the effect of changed governmental regulations. Land investment has been criticized for its implicit endorsement of large-scale industrial agriculturewhich relies heavily on costly machinery, fertilizerspesticidesand other inputs, over smallholder agriculture.
Foreign investors, through large-scale agriculture, increase the effectiveness of underused resources of land, labor, and water, while further providing additional market connections, large-scale infrastructure development, and provision of seeds, fertilizers, and technology.
Foreign investment in land has been criticized by many civil society actors and individuals as a new realization of neocolonialismsignifying a renewed economic imperialism of developed over developing nations.
A report found no available literature giving recommendations for how the UK could change its laws and regulations to require UK companies investing in land in developing countries to report relevant data. The researcher looks at a literature review by Global Witnessthe Oakland Instituteand the International Land Coalition from which states that there is little sustained focus on the extraterritorial obligations of states over overseas business enterprises.
The researcher found most available literature and policy on transparency in land investment focusing on:.
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